The date is July 1880. The setting is the Trans-Pecos territory along the borders of Texas, New Mexico and Mexico. Victorio, the leader of the Mescalero Apache, has killed many American settlers on the frontier and continues to out- maneuver the U.S. military. Buffalo Soldiers begins as Troop H, the Buffalo Soldier unit under the leadership of Sergeant Major Washington Wyatt, intercepts the Texas Rangers, who are lynching Apaches in an effort to elicit information about Victorio's whereabouts. The Rangers, like the Buffalo Soldiers, are aggressively pursuing Victorio. Yet while their goals are the same, to enable safe settlement of Americans in the Texas territory - their methods are very different. The Buffalo Soldiers put an end to the lynchings and return to their fort to report the events of the day to General Leonidas Pike.

Although the mission of the Buffalo Soldiers is to carry out the U.S. government's public policy of westward expansion, the African-American troops are not treated as equals in the U.S. military. They are called derogatory names and are required to perform menial labor. Many White commanders refuse to command Troop H. General Pike himself, considered by many to be the perfect soldier, contends that African-American soldiers "are trained to take orders, not to give them."

The only White officer who supports the unit is Regimental Commanding Officer Colonel Benjamin Grierson. Ostracized by other officers for his enthusiastic command of the African-American troops, Grierson believes in the abilities, dedication, and record of performance of the Buffalo Soldiers and declines offers to lead at any other post. General Pike offers to relieve Grierson "of this self-imposed exile and have him commanding a real cavalry regiment within a month," but Grierson refuses.

While out on assignment, the Buffalo Soldiers are attacked by Victorio's Apaches. Despite suffering casualties, they take prisoners, including Nana, another Apache leader who has knowledge of Victorio's whereabouts. Heroics not withstanding, the troops are denied accolades for bringing in a valuable prisoner.

Colonel Grierson realizes the only way to capture Victorio is to guard all of the water holes between his men and the Mexican border. Troop H heads for Rattlesnake Springs, New Mexico, but Grierson is wounded and returns to the fort. Sergeant Major Wyatt an African-American, is left in command.

Able to beat the Apaches to Rattlesnake Springs, the Buffalo Soldiers gain the high ground on Victorio and the Apache men, women and children. It is at this time that Sergeant Major Wyatt ponders the irony of the situation; he observes this nation of people who have been ruthlessly mistreated and reflects on his own life of slavery. He, a man freed from slavery less than 20 years before, now must follow orders and murder American Indians in order to provide safe passage for the White settlers. Wyatt is not alone in doubting the morality of his orders. His men share in this profound moral dilemma. Does he refuse to follow the orders of the U.S. government and face a court-martial and disgrace; or does he kill innocent people and lose his ability to stand tall before his troop and himself?

Sergeant Major Washington Wyatt: A fictional character, he represents the dedication, bravery and excellence of the Buffalo Soldiers. A former slave and son of slaves, Wyatt has made the military his life.

Colonel Benjamin Grierson: Colonel Grierson was the White commander of the Tenth cavalry of the Buffalo Soldiers. He worked 17 years with the Buffalo Soldiers and was proud of their accomplishments.

General Leonidas Pike: Commanding officer of the fort, Pike believes the African-American troops are inferior.

John Horse: Horse is a Seminole/Negro Indian Scout hired by General Pike to help find Victorio.

Nana: Leader of the Mimbreno Apache. In the film, Nana hopes to join forces with Victorio's tribe to raid the New Mexico territory.

Victorio: The leader of the Mescalero Apache. Victorio is an excellent strategist; his maneuvers rival some of the U.S. military's leading generals. He and Nana refused to live on U.S. reservations.

1. July 30, after fighting with Victorio at Tinaja de las Palmas, Grierson heads to Eagle Springs with Troops A, C, and G, Tenth Cavalry. Company H of the 24th Infantry, and Company H, Tenth Cavalry, were already there.
   
   
2. August 2, leaving part of his command at Eagle Springs, Grierson heads for Van Horn Wells.
   
   
3. Troop H moves toward Alamo Springs and engages Victorio's band in a running battle. Knowing that Victorio will head to the only water hole available - Rattlesnake Springs - Grierson begins a desperate race to beat Victorio there. Troop H rides 65 miles in less than 21 hours, arriving two hours in advance of Victorio and his men.
   
   
4. The Battle of Rattlesnake Springs. Troops from the Tenth Cavalry and other units outmaneuver Victorio. With heavy losses, Victorio is forced to retreat back to Mexico. Weeks later, he is killed by Mexican Federalizes.

1. Research the Indian Wars and use the map below to discuss the role of the Buffalo Soldiers in the Western campaign.
   
   
2. Compare this map with one listing the boom towns of the same time period. Draw conclusions about the impact of racism on the military.
   
   
3. Why do you think there are no Buffalo Soldiers forts on the West coast? To help answer the question, research the tribes that were located in these territories.
   
   
4. Create a map depicting the American Indian population in 1997. How does the map here compare? How do you account for the differences?

• Discuss with your students how the same story can be told in different forms of media (e.g. Oliver Stone's JFK, history books, Life magazine, etc.). What function does the media have (to entertain, inform, persuade)? What responsibilities do viewers have in deciphering their messages?
  
  
• Define and discuss the terms dramatic license, bias, docudrama and documentary (e.g. docudramas: pop culture films; documentaries: Ken Burns' Civil War, Jeremy Isaacs' World at War). What do your students think is the purpose behind making a docudrama rather than a documentary? (Possible responses: to entertain, to illicit emotional response, to inform, to educate, to pose questions).
  
  
• Have your students identify any event in history. What questions must they ask in order to determine if their knowledge of it is a true account? (Questions may include: How did we learn about this event? From whose perspective was it told? Is it important that the account is accurate? Why or why not?
  
  
• Have your students read the Historical Backdrop, timeline and maps. For a detailed account of the events depicted in the film, read William Leckie's book Buffalo Soldiers, pp. 223-229. While they view Buffalo Soldiers, ask your students to note elements that would support that this is a docudrama rather than a documentary.
  
  

1. Why Join the Military?
   
   Discussion - Discuss instances of racism depicted in Buffalo Soldiers and what African-Americans faced when joining the military. Explore reasons why Wyatt stays in the military. Why does he not speak up for his rights? How were the reactions of the other soldiers similar to or different from what you would expect from a civilian? How do students account for this? American-Indians, like the African-Americans, served faithfully in the U.S. military (see timeline in Historical Backdrop.) In light of Victorio's statements at the end of the film, and considering the American-Indian plight, discuss why American-Indians would volunteer to fight for the U.S. government.
   
   Activity

   Have your students create a chart, labeling one side: Reasons to Join and the other side Reasons Not to Join. Using the Historical Backdrop, timeline, the film and the Student Handout, students should fill in the chart as they weigh the pros and cons for why African-Americans would join the military.

   Historically, African-Americans have struggled for the right to fight for their country. By the Vietnam conflict, however, there were charges that a disproportionate number were being placed on the front lines of battle. Have students research the changing roles of African-Americans in the U.S. military, comparing the treatment, conditions and opportunities for African-American soldiers in the military in the 1800s with modern day examples. How do students account for the changes?

   
   
   
2. Civil Disobedience vs. Following Orders
   
   Discussion - During the Mexican War, essayist Henry David Thoreau wrote Civil Disobedience in protest of a war being fought to extend slavery. More than 100 years later, Martin Luther King, Jr. wrote Letter from a Birmingham Jail. Both essays emphasize that laws that deal with moral issues, matters of right and wrong, must not be obeyed merely because they are laws. To obey or disobey such laws must be decided by each individual according to his or her conscience.
   
   Buffalo Soldiers illustrates the powerful conflict between duty and individual culpability. Why did Wyatt and the other Buffalo Soldiers follow the orders of their superiors? Did they ever question their orders? Why was Wyatt's decision so difficult? Do students agree or disagree with his decision?
   
   Activity

   Referencing Civil Disobedience and Letter From a Birmingham Jail, have students examine the issue of conscience vs. regulation in other U.S. military engagements. In which conflicts might soldiers have faced this moral dilemma (e.g. Nuremberg Trials, Japanese Internment during WWII, My Lai/Vietnam Conflict). Have students debate the right of a soldier to make a moral decision that is in direct conflict with his/her orders.

   
   
   

• "You should see this post! The one darkey bugler sounds every call on the board - at least, the bugler toots something so absurd, and as much like the true call as a cow's low. The 'black-faced and shiney- eyed' were drilling right on the grass of the parade ground...while the sergeant drilled one squad, another rolled on the ground like apes.... Really, if I were not afraid, these things would be funny."
  -General Custer in Kansas and Texas, Elizabeth Bacon Custer 1889, pp. 536-537
  
  
• During the debate of Bill #138, a Congressman stated: "I wish to express my thought that the people of my country are able to maintain themselves, and do not need to be maintained by an inferior race.... Soldiers are men of arms, as are their officers and commanders. They must belong to the ruling forces, and should not belong to the inferior forces..... This undertaking to place a lower, inferior, different race upon a level with the white manÕs race, in arms is against the laws that lie at the foundation of true republicanism.."
  -Congressional Record
  
  
• "We return. We return from fighting. We return fighting."
  -W.E.B. DuBois, after WWI
  
  
• "Men of Color to Arms! Liberty won only by White men would lose half its luster."
  -Frederick Douglass, during the Civil War
  
  
• "We the soldiers of the [Tenth Cavalry] U.S. Army, do hereby warn the first and last time all citizens and cowboys, etc. of San Angelo and vicinity to recognize our right of way as just and peaceable men. If we do not receive justice and fair play, which we must have, someone will suffer - if not the guilty, the innocent. It has gone too far, justice or death."
  -Signed U.S. Soldiers, San Saba News, February 12, 1881: Organizational Returns (text from a handbill posted by African-American troops after the murder of one of their troopers)
  
  
• In 1893, in Crawford, Nebraska, the attempted lynching of a former member of the Ninth Cavalry prompted this open letter to the Omaha Progress: "If we are not protected when we visit Crawford, we will protect ourselves regardless of the consequences.... You shall not outrage us and our people right under the shadow of 'Old Glory' while we have shot and shell."
  -Omaha Progress, April 29, 1893
  
  

• Have your students explore the historical relationship between the U.S. government and the American Indians. How did the U.S. goal of Manifest Destiny affect the life of American Indians on the western frontier in the 1800s? How did the U.S. justify its treatment of the Indians?
  
  
• Students should research the treaties that were signed between the Apache and the U.S. government. What were the goals of the American Indians? What were the goals of the U.S. government? Could each group's goals be realized?
  
  
• Compare the U.S. policy of Indian removal with the enslavement of and discrimination towards African-Americans. How do your students account for the differences and the similarities?
  
  

1. Broken Promises & Broken Dreams
   
   Discussion - Although the meeting that takes place between Wyatt and Victorio is fictional, the film encourages viewers to imagine what the soldiers must have been thinking. Have your students discuss how the producer conveys his message. How does the audience know the soldiers are questioning their mission? What evidence exists that shows the soldiers felt a kinship with the Apache?
   
   Activity

   Consider the terms of the treaty on the resource page. What were the Apaches promised by the U.S. government? Compare these promises with those the U.S. government made to the African-Americans after the Civil War. In what ways did the government break its promises to each of these groups?

   Research the role of the government in the removal of the American Indians from their land and the de facto discrimination against African-Americans. Referencing the Constitution from 1880 and the sample treaty, students should explore which arguments the African-Americans and American Indians could have used in a lawsuit against the federal government. Have your students gather evidence for either the U.S., the African-Americans or the American Indians. Stage a mock trial with your students.

   African-Americans and American Indians have taken different paths toward realizing their dreams, and the U.S. government has enacted different laws to rectify the injustices of the past. Using the Student Handout and other primary and secondary resources, have students research and compare the ways in which African-Americans and American Indians have struggled for equality. How do students account for the similarities? Differences?

   
   
   
2. A Common Struggle
   
   Discussion - Colonel Grierson interjects "Does anyone in this room remember who the real enemy is?" Who did the U.S. military consider to be the enemy? Who did the soldiers in Buffalo Soldiers consider to be the enemy? What role did racism and discrimination have in determining the enemy? Who were the enemies of the Apache nation? What makes someone an enemy? Are enemy lines defined or blurred in the film? The character of John Horse symbolizes the commonalties between the two groups. According to historical accounts, American Indians adopted runaway slaves, which often resulted in intermarriage. Have your students examine the relationship between John Horse and Wyatt. Why is there tension between the two men? How do they resolve their conflict? How does John Horse help Wyatt face his internal struggle? Have your students discuss both John Horse's quote, "I am a free man - I come and go for my reasons...can you say the same?" and Victorio's quote, "We will not be slaves like you...why do you murder us for people who made you feel like cattle?" As depicted in the film, how did John Horse and Victorio judge the way in which African-Americans responded to their treatment by the U.S. government? What message does the filmmaker try to convey? Do students agree with this message?
   
   
   Activity

   Compare and contrast events in the 19th century, (i.e. Indian removal, slavery, etc.) with events that are currently taking place worldwide. In light of the moral dilemma explored in Buffalo Soldiers, have students discuss historian George Santayana's quote, "Those who do not learn from history are doomed to repeat it."

Student Handout: Broken Promises and Broken Dreams

Use the following resources to examine the similarities and differences between the African-American and American Indian struggles to be free, and to analyze the film's fictional portrayal of the relationship between the two subjugated groups.

Treaty With the Apache, 1952

ARTICLE 2.

...here and after the signing of this Treaty hostilities between the contracting parties shall forever cease, and perpetual peace and amity shall forever exist between said Indians and the Government and people of the United States.

ARTICLE 6.

Should any citizen of the United States, or other person or persons subject to the laws of the United States, murder, rob, or otherwise maltreat any Apache Indian or Indians, he or they shall be arrested or tried, and upon conviction, shall be subject to all the penalties provided by law for the protection of the persons and property of the people of the said States.

ARTICLE 9.

Relying confidently upon the justice and the liberality of the aforesaid government, and anxious to remove every possible cause that might disturb their peace and quiet, it is agreed by the aforesaid Apaches that the government of the U.S. shall at its earliest convenience designate, settle and adjust their territorial boundaries, and pass and execute in their territory such laws as may be deemed conducive to the prosperity and happiness of said Indians.

ARTICLE 10.

For and in consideration of the faithful performance of all the stipulations herein contained, by the said Apache's Indians, the government of the United States will grant to said Indians such donations, presents, and implements, and adopt such other liberal and humane measures of aid that the government may deem meet and proper.

Milestones in American Indian Civil Rights

1871
Congress ends treaty-making with American Indians.

1880s
American Indians are moved to reservations, considered "wards" of the government.

1924
U.S. extends American citizenship to all American Indians born within the territorial limits of the United States.

1934
Indian "New Deal" aims to halt the sale of American Indian land, to restore tribal land-holding, to rebuild the tribes and promote tribal culture.

1950s
President Eisenhower enacts "termination" and "relocation" programs; ends all federal involvement with American Indians and transfers power to the states.

1969
American Indians seize Alcatraz Island, demanding it be recognized as a cultural center.

1972
The militant AIM (American Indian Movement) occupies the offices of the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) in Washington, D.C.

1973
More than 200 armed members of AIM take over the village of Wounded Knee in South Dakota.

1975
Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975.

1970s
American Indians go to the courts to win back their lands; many succeed. Indian reservations contain an estimated 16 percent of the nation's natural energy resources.

1988
Congress passes the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act; nearly 130 tribes in 24 states are involved in some kind of gaming.

1996
President Clinton declares November National American Indian Heritage Month.

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TNT's Buffalo Soldiers provides a window into the experiences of one group of Black soldiers who served during one of the most powerful and least understood chapters in our nation's history. Because Buffalo Soldiers is a docudrama, the events depicted in the film are intended to elicit an emotional response to history and represent broad themes rather than actual historical fact. As such, Buffalo Soldiers should be viewed solely in its historical context as an examination of heroic men whose courage, integrity and dignity were challenged on the American frontier.


The Buffalo Soldiers

After the Civil War, Congress passed Bill #138 which reorganized the peacetime military. Provisions in this bill created six regiments of Black troops, four infantry (foot soldiers) and two-cavalry (on horseback). The Ninth was placed under the command of Colonel Edward Hatch and the Tenth under the command of Colonel Benjamin Grierson.

Joining the Military

Blacks from the North and South enlisted in droves. To most, the military was an opportunity for a career. As historian Anthony Powell states, "This would be the only part of America that America would allow the colored man to have." Black soldiers were paid the same $13 per month as their White counterparts and received the same food, uniforms and equipment.

Both former slaves and free Blacks entered the U.S. military in the 1800s. Because of restrictions placed on education at the time, many of the enlistees were illiterate. To remedy the situation, the government established the Regimental Chaplin, whose primary objective was to teach the soldiers to read and write, enabling them to fill out reports and do other paperwork required by the army. Access to a free education provided Black soldiers the opportunity to erase the stigma of illiteracy and move closer toward equality with Whites.

Records reveal that the African-American troops performed exceptionally. The soldiers believed their performance was representative of the entire African-American population, and so they sought to do their best at every turn.

Despite segregation and discrimination, the Buffalo Soldier regiments exhibited high rates of reenlistment and low instances of desertion and alcoholism when compared to other troops. Their record of distinguished service eventually silenced many critics and earned praise from many high ranking officers.

The Indian Wars

Like White troops, one of the assignments of the Buffalo Soldiers was to escort tribes to designated reservations, fight them when they tried to preserve their traditional way of life and protect settlers from attacks. Of the 139 Indian campaigns launched between 1866 and 1890, a large percentage involved Black troops. While TNT's Buffalo Soldiers asks "what did the Buffalo Soldiers think of their assignment?" the men of the these regiments had little choice when orders demanded that they remove American Indians from their native lands. This was government policy, and the Buffalo Soldiers carried out their orders out of a sense of duty and commitment to their country and the oath they had taken to the flag of the Republic.

Other Duties of the Buffalo Soldiers

The Buffalo Soldiers also built and defended the telegraph lines, built and repaired forts,which helped establish foundations for future towns. They were involved in the settling of railroad/union disputes, assisted the local authorities in settling disputes between the White settlers, mapped the vast territories in New Mexico and Arizona, marked the water holes, helped settlers find safe places to live, and protected railroad workers.

Origin of the Name

Indians were said to have associated the fur between the horns of the bison with the curly hair of the African-American troops. And the soldiers demonstrated the fearlessness and courage of the buffalo. The name Buffalo Soldier stuck, and the soldiers wore it with pride.

The Apache

When White settlers began moving into the southwestern territory in the middle of the 19th century, they were challenged by the Apache, Navajo, Comanches, Ute, Lipan, Kiowa, Cheyenne, and Arapaho. The Apache were a nomadic people, raiders who fought for their land and their way of life. They were led by some of. history's most successful warriors: Cochise, Geronimo, Mangas Coloradas, Nana, and Victorio. The name "Apache," a Zuni adaptation from the word "apachu," means "enemy." This great enemy was known for cunning, trickery, courage, speed, and military genius.

After years of conflict, the Apache nation signed several treaties with the U.S. government that transferred them to reservations in New Mexico and Arizona. But promises of protection and support were broken before the ink was dry. Stripped of their nomadic traditions, the Apache wereforced to become farmers on unforgiving land. Years later, having finally adapted to the land, the Apaches were again displaced, this time by settlers. In addition, copper and silver prospectors mined the very same land, taking the earth's riches and giving nothing in return. And while the treaties promised the Apache people food and supplies, the government again came up short - supplies were less than adequate, often tainted and diseased, and sometimes nonexistent.

In protest, in 1879 Victorio and his followers, along with Nana, left the reservation and headed to Mexico. Because the Mexican government would not allow the U.S. military to enter Mexican soil, the U.S. cavalry's only means to confine Victorio to Mexico was to guard the border.

On July 30, 1880, Colonel Grierson and a handful of soldiers from the Tenth Cavalry fought Victorio at Tinaja de las Palmas, Texas. Victorio was defeated and pushed back into Mexico. On his next attempt, Victorio headed for Rattlesnake Springs, NM. It was here that the great warrior aced defeat at the hands of Grierson and the Tenth. Rattlesnake Springs was a decisive U.S. tactical victory. Victorio was pushed back to Mexico for the last time and was eventually killed by the Mexican forces and their Indian auxiliaries.

TIMELINE: African-American & American Indian Troops in the Military

- African-American
*American Indian

1770
- March 5, at the Boston Massacre, Crispus Attucks is killed by British forces.

1775-1783 American Revolution
- Congress reluctantly agrees to enlist African-Americans into the service; approximately 7,000 soldiers and sailors sign up to defend the United States.
* American Indians fight on both sides.

1812-1815 The War of 1812
- The battles of New Orleans and Lake Erie have African-American representation. The men were promised freedom if successful.

1861-1865 - The Civil War
- Approximately 186,000 African-American troops served in union regiments. More than 33,000 died.
* American Indians fight on both sides.

1866-1890
- 1866, Congress passes Bill #138, which establishes six regiments of Black troops, four infantry and two cavalry.
- Buffalo Soldiers help carry out the U.S. government's policy of westward expansion.

1898 - Spanish-American War
- The Buffalo Soldiers, under Captain "Black Jack" Pershing, lead the charge up San Juan Hill.

1914-1918 - World War I
- More than 400,000 African-American troops fight against the Germans.
* 6,000 of the 8,000 American Indians who fought were volunteers.

1941-1945 - World War II
- More than one million African-American troops fight against the Axis powers.
* 25,000 American Indian men and women fight for democracy. Navajo Marines language is used as a secret code.

1948
-* President Truman orders an end to segregation of troops in the military with the signing of Executive Order #9981.

1950-1953 - The Korean War
- By the end of this conflict the armed forces are officially integrated.
* An American Indian wins the Congressional Medal of Honor.

1965-1975 - The Vietnam Conflict
- Twenty African-Americans win the Congressional Medal of Honor. By 1966, they made up almost 16 percent of all draftees. By 1967, 20 percent of army fatalities are African-American.
* 41,500 American Indians served.

1971
- Concerns over the Vietnam conflict, the inequality in domestic and military society, set off a series of race riots, sit down strikes and other disruptions.

1975
- "Chappie" Daniel James is the first African-American four star general.

1989
- Colin Powell is the first African-American to be selected as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.

1990-1991 - The Persian Gulf War
* 3,000 American Indians served. Three were among those killed in action.

1992
- Over 400,000 African-American servicemen and women on active dutyÐ30% of the army, 20% of the marines and 13% of the navy. The Buffalo Soldier Monument is dedicated at Ft. Leavenworth, Kansas.
* One out of every four American Indian males is a military veteran. Forty-six percent of tribal leaders today are veterans.

1994
- The U.S. Postal Service issues the commemorative Buffalo Soldier stamp.

The Legacy of the Buffalo Soldiers

"Look at him. Soldier of the nation. Eagles on his buttons, crossed sabres on his canteen, a rifle in his hand, a pistol on his hip. Courageous, iron will.... The Buffalo Soldier believed that hatred and bigotry and prejudice could not defeat him, that through his pain and sacrifice they would be destroyed for the evil things they are."
-General Colin L. Powell, at the unveiling of the Buffalo Soldier Monument at Fort Leavenworth, KS

• Between 1866 and 1912, 23 Buffalo Soldiers and/or Seminole Scouts received the Congressional Medal of Honor.
  
  
• There is no documentation showing Buffalo Soldiers performing any type of mutilation or pillage toward their enemies.
  
  
• The record will show that Buffalo Soldiers performed their duty well, creating a pride not only in their units, but for their country and the flag it represented, and to the entire African-American race.
  
  

Books and Magazines

• The Buffalo Soldiers: A Narrative of the Negro Cavalry in the West, William Leckie
  
  
• The Forgotten Heroes: The Story of the Buffalo Soldiers, Clinton Cox
  
  
• Cobblestone - Buffalo Soldiers, February 1995, Volume Sixteen, Number II, History of Indian White Relations, Smithsonian Institute
  
  
• Men-A-Marching, Frank P. Langallier, Colorado Heritage magazine, Spring 1996
  
  
• Aftrican Americans: Voices of Triumph, Time-Life custom Publishing
  
  

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Internet Sites

• http://tnt.turner.com
  
  
• http://learning.turner.com
  
  
• http://www.horseworld.com/imh/buf/buf1.html
  
  
• http://www.charm.net/~fdiggs/buffalo/history.html
  
  
• http://www.wiz-worx.com/366th/buffalo.htm
  
  
• http://www.coax.net/people/LWF/buffpage.htm
  
  
• http://www.clements.umich.edu/Photogal/People.html
  
  
• http://www.fortconcho.com (select Living History)
  
  

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Teacher's Evaluation

The first 50 educators to complete and return this evaluation will receive TNT memorabilia!

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